Protein Synthesis
building the molecules of life
Each cell includes a DNA genome that encodes the instructions for building all of the cell's proteins. Atomic structures have revealed many of the molecular machines that protect and replicate this DNA, transcribe it into RNA, and translate it into proteins.
Molecule of the Month Articles (52)
 | AAA+ Proteases AAA+ proteases are ATP-powered molecular motors that thread protein chains through a hole |
 | Aconitase and Iron Regulatory Protein 1 Aconitase performs a reaction in the citric acid cycle, and moonlights as a regulatory protein |
 | Adenine Riboswitch in Action XFEL serial crystallography reveals what happens when adenine binds to a riboswitch |
 | Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases ensure that the proper amino acids are used to build proteins |
 | Cascade and CRISPR Cascade and CRISPR help bacteria remember how to fight viral infection |
 | Catabolite Activator Protein CAP senses the level of sugar and mobilizes the proteins needed to utilize it |
 | Chaperones Chaperones help new proteins fold into their proper shape |
 | DNA Atomic structures reveal how the iconic double helix encodes genomic information |
 | DNA Helicase DNA helicase pries apart the two strands in a DNA double helix, powered by ATP |
 | DNA Ligase DNA ligase reconnects broken DNA strands, and is used to engineer recombinant DNA |
 | DNA Methyltransferases Cells add methyl groups to their DNA to encode additional epigenetic information |
 | DNA Polymerase DNA polymerase makes an accurate copy of the cell's genome |
 | Elongation Factors Protein synthesis requires the assistance of several elongation factors that guide each step |
 | Enhanceosome Enhanceosomes help decide the appropriate time to transcribe a gene |
 | Estrogen Receptor Estrogen binds to receptors in the nucleus and affects key genes in development |
 | Exosomes Exosomes destroy messenger RNA molecules after they have finished their jobs |
 | Expressome In bacteria, ribosomes start building proteins as messenger RNA is being transcribed |
 | Hemoglobin Hemoglobin uses a change in shape to increase the efficiency of oxygen transport |
 | HIV Reverse Transcriptase HIV builds a DNA copy of its RNA genome, providing a unique target for drug therapy |
 | Hsp90 Heat shock proteins ensure that proteins remain folded and active under harsh conditions |
 | Initiation Factor eIF4E Initiation factors for protein synthesis interact through disordered chains. |
 | Inteins Inteins splice themselves out of larger protein chains |
 | lac Repressor A genetic circuit controls the production of lactose-utilizing enzymes in bacteria |
 | Lysozyme Lysozyme attacks the cell walls of bacteria |
 | Messenger RNA Capping Messenger RNA molecules are capped with an inverted nucleotide |
 | Nucleosome The cell's genome is stored and protected by nucleosomes |
 | O-GlcNAc Transferase Some protein functions are regulated when sugars are attached |
 | Oct and Sox Transcription Factors Transcription factors decide when particular genes will be transcribed |
 | p53 Tumor Suppressor p53 tumor suppressor protects the body from DNA damage and cancer |
 | Poly(A) Polymerase Poly(A) polymerase adds a long tail of adenine nucleotides at the end of messenger RNA |
 | Proteasome Proteasomes destroy damaged or obsolete proteins inside cells |
 | RecA and Rad51 Broken DNA strands may be repaired by matching sequences in a duplicate copy of the DNA |
 | Restriction Enzymes Bacterial enzymes that cut DNA are useful tools for genetic engineering |
 | Rhomboid Protease GlpG Some proteases cut proteins embedded in cell membranes |
 | Ribonuclease P The ribozyme ribonuclease P cleaves pre-tRNA to form functional tRNA. |
 | Ribosomal Subunits Atomic structures of the ribosomal subunits reveal a central role for RNA in protein synthesis |
 | Ribosome Ribosomes are complex molecular machines that build proteins |
 | Riboswitches Special sequences of messenger RNA can bind to regulatory molecules and affect synthesis of proteins |
 | RNA Polymerase RNA polymerase transcribes genetic information from DNA into RNA |
 | Selenocysteine Synthase Selenium is used in place of sulfur to build proteins for special tasks |
 | Self-splicing RNA Special sequences of RNA are able to splice themselves |
 | Sirtuins Sirtuin activation is being explored as a way to slow aging. |
 | Sliding Clamps Sliding clamps slide along DNA strands and keep DNA polymerase on track during replication |
 | Small Interfering RNA (siRNA) Our cells continually look for pieces of double-stranded RNA, a possible sign of viral infection |
 | TATA-Binding Protein TATA protein tells RNA polymerase where to get started on a gene |
 | Thymine Dimers Ultraviolet light damages our DNA, but our cells have ways to correct the damage |
 | Topoisomerases Topoisomerases untangle and reduce the tension of DNA strands in the cell |
 | Transfer RNA Transfer RNA translates the language of the genome into the language of proteins |
 | Transfer-Messenger RNA tmRNA rescues ribosomes that are stalled by damaged messenger RNA |
 | Transposase Transposases shift genes around in the genome |
 | Ubiquitin Ubiquitin is used to tag obsolete proteins for destruction |
 | Zinc Fingers Zinc ions are used to strengthen small protein modules that recognize DNA |
Learning Resources (8)
 | DNA Paper Model Atomic structures reveal how the iconic double helix encodes genomic information |
 | tRNA Paper Model Transfer RNA translates the language of the genome into the language of proteins |
 | Molecular Backgrounds For Virtual Meetings Other Resource Download images created by David Goodsell to add a molecular backdrop to your next virtual meeting. Click on the image to expand. |
 | ADN: El Acido Desoxirribonucleico (Spanish) Flyer Atomic structures reveal how the iconic double helix encodes genomic information |
 | Hemoglobin Bean Bag Toss Other Resource |
 | Award-winning RNA Polymerase Illustration Poster |
 | The Ribosome Flyer This flyer commemorates the 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for studies of the structure and function of the ribosome. |
 | Ribosomal Subunits GIF Atomic structures of the ribosomal subunits reveal a central role for RNA in protein synthesis. Ribosomes are complex molecular machines that build proteins. |
Curriculum Resources (3)
Structural Biology Highlights (20)
Geis Digital Archive (7)
 | Transfer Ribonucleic Acid (tRNA) Geis illustrates the structure of transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA), the nucleic acid that translates the language of the genome into the language of proteins. |
 | Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Geis illustrates three possible forms of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). He highlights the differences between each structure by displaying them in a side-by-side manner. |
 | Z-DNA In this sketch, Geis illustrates the left handed Z-form of double stranded deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Z-DNA is indicated by the zig-zag like pattern of the two strands in relationship to each other. Geis shows a line of symmetry down the middle of the illustration highlighting the helix axis of the molecule. |
 | DNA Geis illustrates a double helix in his depiction of DNA. He portrays the helices with a soft ribbon structure. The white "box-like" structures represent a base pair in the DNA strand. |
 | A-DNA Geis uses a thin ball and stick representation of a section of A-DNA, the more compact conformation of DNA less often seen in biological systems. He draws it from a perspective looking down into the double helix, showing the increase in diameter of the middle of the helix from the B form DNA. |
 | B-DNA Geis illustrates B-DNA in blue looking from above, through the double helix. The two bases on top are highlighted in white to distinguish one individual section of the layered scene. |
 | TATA-Binding Protein (TBP) Geis visualizes the TATA-box binding protein (TBP) and its associated proteins that form a preinitiation complex in all eukaryotes for transcribing DNA to messenger RNA. Acrylic painting in collaboration with Dr. Stephen K. Burley (Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Rockefeller University). Illustration copyright by Irving Geis. |
Goodsell Molecular Landscapes (5)
 | Escherichia coli Bacterium A cross-section through an Escherichia coli cell reveals the crowded nature of the cell and diverse molecular processes. |
 | Mycoplasma mycoides Mycoplasma mycoides (2011) by David S. Goodsell. doi: 10.2210/rcsb_pdb/goodsell-gallery-011 |
 | Biosites: Cytoplasm Biosites: Cytoplasm (2005) by David S. Goodsell |
 | Biosites: Nucleus Biosites: Nucleus (2005) by David S. Goodsell |
 | Escherichia coli Escherichia coli (1999) by David S. Goodsell |
